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Ethics.htm
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<meta http-equiv="content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
<title></title>
<body style="font-family:Arial">
<blockquote>
<center>
<h2>COMMENTARY ON THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS<br>
by<br>
Thomas Aquinas</h2>
<h3>translated by<br>
C. I. Litzinger, O.P.<br>
<br>
Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1964, 2 volumes</h3>
</center><br>
<p><a href="EthicsIndex.htm">OUTLINE INDEX OF THE TEN BOOKS OF THE ETHICS (nos. 1-2180)</a><br>
<table width="95%">
<tbody>
<tr width="10%">
<td width="10%" align="left"><b>BOOK I:</b>
<td width="60%"><b>THE GOOD FOR MAN</b>
<td>Aristotle
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary:
<td>The difference of ends.<br>
Happiness, the end and supreme good of the happy person.<br>
The two parts of the soul.<br>
Division of virtue.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>The subject matter of moral philosophy.<br>
Its end and the diversity of ends.
<td>1094
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Human affairs have an end, a supreme end.<br>
A knowledge of this end is necessary.<br>
This knowledge belongs to the most important science, political science.
<td>1094 a 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>What disposition the student and the teacher of this science should have.<br>
Neither a youth nor a slave of the emotions is a reliable student.
<td>1094 b 13
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Opinions about happiness.<br>
How the philosopher and the ordinary man differ about the supreme good.<br>
Happiness itself, a supreme good.<br>
The disposition of the student.
<td>1095 a 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>What opinion about happiness is more probable.<br>
An error of the common people.<br>
Happiness and virtue.
<td>1095 b 12
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Happiness in a separated good.<br>
The existence of this good.
<td>1096 a 12
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>The separated good as an absolute good.<br>
How the Platonists and the Pythagoreans agree concerning the good.
<td>1096 a 34
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Even if a separated good exists, an investigation would be out of order.<br>
This matter belongs to another science.
<td>1096 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>An inquiry into the nature of happiness.<br>
Happiness is the ultimate end.<br>
The conditions for an ultimate end.
<td>1097 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>The definition of happiness.<br>
Its genus and differences.<br>
The activity proper to man, an operation of reason.
<td>1097 b 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>What still remains to be done.<br>
Time as a help and an obstacle to the discovery of truth.
<td>1098 a 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>Confirmation of the definition of happiness.<br>
The testimony of other philosophers.<br>
The credibility of things generally accepted about happiness.
<td>1098 b 9
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>Pleasure’s contribution to happiness.<br>
Pleasure in virtuous action.<br>
Happiness in virtue together with pleasure.<br>
External goods as necessary to happiness.
<td>1099 a 9
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Is the cause of happiness divine, human, or fortuitous?
<td>1099 b 9
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#15">Lecture 15.</a>
<td>Whether anyone can be called happy in this life.<br>
The view of Solon.<br>
Can the dead be called happy?
<td>1100 a 5
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#16">Lecture 16.</a>
<td>Happiness and unhappiness by reason of the goods of fortune.<br>
Good and bad are not judged by goods of fortune.<br>
The virtuous and happy man bears all turns of fortune.
<td>1100 b 8
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#17">Lecture 17.</a>
<td>How the fortune of friends affects happiness.<br>
The misfortunes of friends cannot really change the condition of the dead.
<td>1101 a 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#18">Lecture 18.</a>
<td>Is happiness one of the goods deserving honor?<br>
Happiness, something perfect and best.<br>
Confirmation by both human and divine praises and by the opinion of Eudoxus.
<td>1101 b 10
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#19">Lecture 19.</a>
<td>A knowledge of virtue is useful for happiness.<br>
This science studies virtue.<br>
Our science studies and treats certain parts of the soul.
<td>1102 a 4
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics1.htm#20">Lecture 20.</a>
<td>Division of the irrational soul into vegetative and sensitive.<br>
The vegetative part is not proper to the human soul; does not participate in reason.<br>
The sensitive part participates in reason.
<td>1102 a 33
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK II:</b>
<td><b>MORAL VIRTUE IN GENERAL</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Virtue in general.<br>
Its essence.<br>
Mean between extremes.<br>
Opposition between vice and virtue.<br>
Directions for acquiring the mean.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Virtue a product of habit, not of nature.<br>
Man becomes virtuous by repeated acts.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Operations producing the habit of virtue take place according to right reason.<br>
These operations kept intact by the mean.<br>
Comparison of bodily powers and operations with the virtues and operations of the soul.
<td>1103 b 27
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Pleasure or sorrow a sign of virtue already produced.<br>
Proof from the inclination of man intent on virtue; from a penalty called the remedy of the soul; from what is destructive of virtue.
<td>1104 b 6
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Virtues not to be compared with art.<br>
Virtues are principles of action.<br>
Works done by art possess what belongs to the perfection of art.
<td>1105 a 18
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>Passions, powers and habits as principles for finding the definition of virtue.<br>
Virtues belong to the genus of habit.
<td>1105 b 20
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>What kind of habit virtue is.<br>
General qualities of virtue.<br>
Specific difference shown from the characteristic of its operations and from the nature of virtue itself.
<td>1106 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Virtue defined.<br>
Its chief characteristic is the mean.<br>
Excess and defect happen according to the extremes.<br>
Evil, according to the Pythagoreans, is unlimited.<br>
How virtue can be an extreme.
<td>1106 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Definition of virtue explained.<br>
The mean is good but the extreme vicious.<br>
A discussion of individual virtues and vices.
<td>1107 a 28
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Mean and extreme in virtues relating to honors.<br>
Virtues and vices established in the mean and in the extremes.<br>
Extension of the doctrine to certain passions.
<td>1107 b 23
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>Opposition among the virtues and vices.<br>
Opposition of vices among themselves is greater than of the vices to the virtues.<br>
One extreme is more opposed to virtue than the other.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics2.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>The manner of acquiring virtue.<br>
Three ways of acquiring virtue: avoid extremes, consider one’s natural inclinations, and beware of pleasures.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK III:</b>
<td><b>THE VOLUNTARY, FORTITUDE AND TEMPERANCE</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>The voluntary and the involuntary.<br>
Things consequent to the voluntary.<br>
Fortitude and temperance.<br>
Their species and extremes.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>The involuntary and spontaneous action.<br>
The nature of the involuntary resulting from force, from ignorance.
<td>1109 b 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Voluntary actions merit praise and condemnation, honor and punishment.<br>
Actions done out of fear deserve not praise but pardon.
<td>1110 a 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Investigation of the involuntary resulting from ignorance.<br>
Differences regarding this ignorance.
<td>1110 b 18
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Definition of the voluntary.<br>
Its principle is within the agent knowing the circumstances.
<td>1111 a 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>A treatise on choice.<br>
Choice is neither sensual desire, nor anger.<br>
How choice differs from wishing.
<td>1111 b 6
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Choice is not identical with opinion.<br>
Explanation of what choice is.
<td>1111 b 31
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Counsel is investigated.<br>
Certain things are excluded as objects of counsel.
<td>1112 a 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Counsel concerns means to an end.<br>
The method and order of taking counsel.
<td>1112 b 13
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Counsel in relation to choice.<br>
How they are alike; how one precedes the other.
<td>1113 a 3
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>The object of willing.<br>
Different opinions about this.
<td>1113 a 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Virtue and vice are within our power.<br>
Confirmation of this truth.
<td>1113 b 3
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>That no one is voluntarily evil is rejected.<br>
Habits are voluntary in their formation.
<td>1114 a 3
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>The opinion that we have no faculty cognoscitive of good is refuted.<br>
An objection against our position.
<td>1114 a 32
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Treatise on fortitude.<br>
A mean between rashness and fear.<br>
Principally concerned about fear of death.
<td>1115 a 7
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#15">Lecture 15.</a>
<td>Objects of fear are not equally terrifying to all.<br>
The brave man does not forsake reason be cause of fear.
<td>1115 b 7
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#16">Lecture 16.</a>
<td>The fortitude of the citizen, of the soldier.<br>
A comparison between the two.
<td>1116 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#17">Lecture 17.</a>
<td>A counterfeit fortitude operating through rage.<br>
Fortitude operating through hope, through ignorance.
<td>1116 b 23
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#18">Lecture 18.</a>
<td>The properties of fortitude.<br>
It rightly orders man in regard to terrifying things.<br>
Fortitude in relation to pain and pleasure.
<td>1117 a 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#19">Lecture 19.</a>
<td>Treatise on temperance.<br>
Not concerned with pleasures of the soul.
<td>1117 b 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#20">Lecture 20.</a>
<td>Temperance and intemperance deal directly with pleasures of touch.<br>
Common and proper desires as matter of temperance.
<td>1118 a 26
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#21">Lecture 21.</a>
<td>How the temperate and intemperate are affected by sorrows, pleasure and pain.<br>
Insensibility is not in keeping with human nature.<br>
The temperate man follows the golden mean in pleasure.
<td>1118 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics3.htm#22">Lecture 22.</a>
<td>Intemperance more voluntary than cowardice.<br>
Comparison between intemperance and the vices of children.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK IV:</b>
<td><b>OTHER MORAL VIRTUES</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, desire of moderate honors, meekness, affability, veracity, pleasantness, shame.<br>
Their opposites.
<td>1119 a 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Liberality, a mean.<br>
Extravagance and illiberality, extremes.
<td>1119 b 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>The nature of the principal act of liberality.<br>
Circumstances and qualities of the act.
<td>1120 a 23
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>The spendthrift.<br>
His act.<br>
Comparison with the liberal man.
<td>1120 b 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Gravity of extravagance.<br>
More serious than illiberality.
<td>1121 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>Incurableness of illiberality.<br>
Old age favors it.<br>
Nature inclines to it.
<td>1121 b 14
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<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Investigation of magnificence.<br>
A comparison with liberality.
<td>1122 a 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Object of expenditure by the munificent man.<br>
Vices contrary to magnificence.
<td>1122 b 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>A consideration of magnanimity.<br>
Its matter.<br>
Magnanimity in relation to other virtues.
<td>1123 a 33
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Acts of magnanimity.<br>
Concerned with honors and riches.
<td>1124 a 4
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<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>Traits of the magnanimous person.<br>
Those dealing with matters of other virtues.<br>
Those in accord with the disposition of the magnanimous person.
<td>1124 b 6
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Vices opposed to magnanimity.<br>
Small-mindedness, the defect.<br>
Presumption, the excess.
<td>1125 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>The virtue concerned with ordinary honors.<br>
Compared to magnanimity, as liberality to magnificence.<br>
Its mean and its extremes.
<td>1125 b
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>Meekness and its opposed vices.<br>
Concerned with anger.<br>
Difficult to know how and when to be angry.
<td>1125 b 26
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Excess and defect of pleasantness.<br>
The mean and its properties.
<td>1126 b 10
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#15">Lecture 15.</a>
<td>Veracity.<br>
Lying, boasting, and dissembling, the opposite vices.
<td>1127 a 13
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#16">Lecture 16.</a>
<td>Amusement, a virtue and a vice.<br>
How this virtue differs from the virtues treated immediately before.
<td>1127 b 33
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics4.htm#17">Lecture 17.</a>
<td>Shame, a passion.<br>
Commendable in youths. Similar to continence.
<td>1128 b 10
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<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK V:</b>
<td><b>JUSTICE</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Justice and injustice.<br>
Their species.<br>
Equity.<br>
Justice in the metaphorical sense.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Actions treated by justice and injustice.<br>
The kind of mean justice is.<br>
Between what extremes justice is the mean.
<td>1129
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>The legally just thing.<br>
Legal justice.
<td>1129 b 12
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Particular justice.<br>
Particular injustice.
<td>1130 a 14
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Distributive and commutative justice.<br>
The mean in these divisions of justice.
<td>1130 b 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>The just thing and proportionality.<br>
Nature of proportionality.<br>
Proportionality in distributive justice.
<td>1131 a 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Commutative justice.<br>
Its characteristics.
<td>1131 b 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>The mean of commutative justice.<br>
How determined in like things, in diverse things.
<td>1132 a 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>The opinion of Pythagoras concerning the mean.<br>
Refutation of this opinion.
<td>1132 b 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Observance of proportionality in practice.<br>
The function of money.
<td>1133 a 18
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>How just action is a mean.<br>
Justice itself as a mean.
<td>1133 b 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Who is truly called unjust.<br>
Different ways of being unjust.
<td>1134 a 16
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>Division of political justice.<br>
Explanation of its parts.
<td>1134 b 18
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>The role of voluntariness in determining the just thing and the just man.<br>
How ignorance, passion, and choice affect justice.
<td>1135 a 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>To suffer injustice is an involuntary.<br>
To inflict injustice is a voluntary.
<td>1136 a 10
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#15">Lecture 15.</a>
<td>Who is unjust in distributions.<br>
Refutation of certain errors.
<td>1136 b 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#16">Lecture 16.</a>
<td>Equity.<br>
Its object, subject, and habit.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics5.htm#17">Lecture 17.</a>
<td>Justice in the metaphorical sense.
<td>1137 a 31<br>
No injustice done to oneself.
<td>1138 a 4
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK VI:</b>
<td><b>INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Principles of operation.<br>
Intellectual habits: science, art, understanding, wisdom, and prudence.<br>
Connection between prudence and other virtues.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Right reason.<br>
Division of the parts of the soul.
<td>1138 b 18
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Principles of human acts.<br>
Function proper to the intellect.
<td>1139 a 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Enumeration of the intellectual virtues.<br>
Habit of science.<br>
Definition of art.
<td>1139 b 14
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Explanation of prudence: who is prudent, what is prudence.<br>
Prudence differs from art.
<td>1140 a 24
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>Understanding, a virtue concerned with the principles of demonstration.<br>
Wisdom understood in two ways.
<td>1140 b 31
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Wisdom, the principal virtue absolutely speaking.<br>
Difference between wisdom and prudence.
<td>1141 a 19
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Prudence the principal virtue concerned with human affairs.<br>
Prudence and the art of government.<br>
Prudence compared with understanding.
<td>1141 b 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Virtues annexed to prudence.<br>
<i>Eubulia</i>, its definition and conditions.
<td>1142 a 32
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td><i>Synesis</i>, what it is not.<br>
<i>Gnome</i> compared with <i>synesis</i>.<br>
<i>Synesis</i> and <i>gnome</i> compared with prudence.
<td>1142 b 34
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>Doubts about the utility of wisdom and prudence.<br>
Solution of the doubts.
<td>1143 b 17
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics6.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>No moral virtue without prudence.<br>
Prudence does not rule wisdom.
<td>1144 b
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK VII:</b>
<td><b>CONTINENCE AND INCONTINENCE</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Continence and attitudes opposed to continence.<br>
The continent and the incontinent man.<br>
Pleasure and its species. Pain.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Censurable moral dispositions; contrary dispositions.
<td>1145 a 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Difficulties concerning continence.<br>
Doing what one knows is evil.
<td>1145 b 22
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Solutions of the difficulties.<br>
Difference between the continent and the incontinent.
<td>1146 b 8
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Pleasure and pain, the material for continence and incontinence.
<td>1147 b 20
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>Natural pleasures; pleasures against nature.<br>
How these are treated by continence and incontinence.
<td>1148 b 15
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Comparison between incontinence of anger and of pleasure, between animal incontinence and human incontinence.
<td>1149 a 24
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Agreement of continence with perseverance.<br>
Different kinds of incontinence.
<td>1150 a 9
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>The intemperate are worse than the incontinent.<br>
The repentance of the incontinent.
<td>1150 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Who is really continent, who obstinate.<br>
Comparison between continence and temperance.
<td>1151 a 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>No man is simultaneously prudent and incontinent.<br>
Comparison of the incontinent with the prudent man.
<td>1152 a 7
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Pleasure and pain, the concern of the statesman.<br>
Opinions against the goodness of pleasure.
<td>1152 b 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>Refutation of the opinions.<br>
Different kinds of good.
<td>1152 b 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>The evil Of pain.<br>
The greatest pleasure is happiness.
<td>1153 b
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics7.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Pleasures of the body.<br>
To what extent they are good and necessary
<td>1154 a 8
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK VIII:</b>
<td><b>FRIENDSHIP</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Friendship and its various kinds.<br>
Diverse matters concerning friends and friendship.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Virtue, the foundation of friendship.<br>
Discussion of friendship belongs to moral philosophy.
<td>1155
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Good, the object of friendship.<br>
Definition of friendship.
<td>1155 b 17
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Kinds of friendship.<br>
Friendships for utility and for pleasure.<br>
Their difference from perfect friendship.
<td>1156 a 5
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Comparison between useful and pleasant friendships.
<td>1157
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>The acts and habit of friendship.<br>
How they differ.
<td>1157 b 5
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Multiplicity of friends.<br>
Infrequency of perfect friendship.<br>
Comparison between kinds of friends.
<td>1158 a 3
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Friendship between unequals.<br>
Various kinds of this friendship.<br>
Their preservation.
<td>1158 b ii
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Loving is a property of friendship.<br>
Preservation of friendship by love.<br>
Friendship between opposites.
<td>1159 a 13
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>Friendships following on association.<br>
Diversification of associations.<br>
Political association as a foundation of friendship.
<td>1159 b 25
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>Distinction of political associations.<br>
Similarity of political and domestic associations.
<td>1160 a 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Kinds of friendship correspond to kinds of political order, both good and bad.
<td>1161 a 10
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>Subdivisions of friendship.<br>
Friendship among relatives; its properties.<br>
Friendship between husband and wife.
<td>1161 b 11
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>Avoidance of complaints in friendship.<br>
Complaints in utilitarian friendship between equals.
<td>1162 a 34
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics8.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Complaints in friendship of utility between unequals.
<td>1163 a 24
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK IX:</b>
<td><b>PROPERTIES OF FRIENDSHIP</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Preservation of friendship.<br>
The works of friendship: goodwill, concord, beneficence, love of self.<br>
Friends of a happy man; the number of friends.<br>
Need for friends.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#1">Lecture 1.</a>
<td>Properties pertaining to the preservation of friendship.<br>
Remedies against disturbance of friendship.
<td>1163 b 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#2">Lecture 2.</a>
<td>Doubts on the duties of friendship.<br>
Helping one’s parents, friends, and benefactors.
<td>1164 b 28
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#3">Lecture 3.</a>
<td>Minor doubts on the dissolution of friendship.<br>
Friendship and change of status.
<td>1165 a 37
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#4">Lecture 4.</a>
<td>Origin of friendships’ acts.<br>
Enumeration of these acts.<br>
The relations of good and bad men to the acts of friendship.
<td>1166 a
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#5">Lecture 5.</a>
<td>Goodwill is not friendship, but is the beginning of friendship.
<td>1166 b 30
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#6">Lecture 6.</a>
<td>Concord.<br>
Its relation to friendship.<br>
Its subject matter.<br>
Where found.
<td>1167 a 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#7">Lecture 7.</a>
<td>Beneficence.<br>
Love between benefactor and beneficiary.
<td>1167 b 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#8">Lecture 8.</a>
<td>Love of self.<br>
Censurable in one sense.
<td>1168 a 28
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#9">Lecture 9.</a>
<td>A virtuous man’s love of self.<br>
Laudable in one sense.
<td>1168 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#10">Lecture 10.</a>
<td>A happy man’s love of others.<br>
His need of friends.
<td>1169 b 3
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#11">Lecture 11.</a>
<td>Fundamental reason why a virtuous man needs friends.
<td>1170 a 13
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#12">Lecture 12.</a>
<td>Limitation on the number of friends.<br>
Needed especially in virtuous friendship.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#13">Lecture 13.</a>
<td>Need for friends in adversity and prosperity; most of all in adversity.
<td>1171 a 21
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics9.htm#14">Lecture 14.</a>
<td>Pleasure in the companionship of friends.<br>
Influence of friends on one another.
<td>1171 b 29
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>BOOK X:</b>
<td><b>PLEASURE. HAPPINESS</b>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Summary
<td>Pleasure; its kinds.<br>
Happiness, contemplative and active.<br>
Preparation for and connection with the treatise on the state.
<tr valign="top">
<td>
<a href="Ethics10.htm#1">Lecture 1</a>
<td>Pleasure, a subject of moral philosophy.<br>
Three reasons for its treatment.
<td>1172 a 19