day1/1 Python Types (solutions).ipynb

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    "# Object-Oriented Python: Types, Objects, and Methods\n",
    "\n",
    "Python is an \"Object-Oriented\" Programming language.  This means that data is transformed into code, an approach that makes Python very flexible.  \n",
    "\n",
    "In this unit, we'll learn to think about data in python in terms of \"types\", which will open the doors for using a wide variety of tools in Python and make it easier to understand how to fix our code when Python raises an error message.\n",
    "\n"
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    "## One Approach to Coding: Code-Data Separation"
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    "##### Function Syntax in Python\n",
    "\n",
    "```python\n",
    "function_name(argument1)\n",
    "function_name(argument1, argument2)\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "For example, to calculate the sum of two numbers: `min(1, 2)`"
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    "\n",
    "**Exercises**: Answer the following questions using the built-in math functions `round()`,  `pow()`, `min()`, `max()`, and `sum()`"
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    "*Example*: What is `3.2` rounded to the nearest whole number?"
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    "round(3.2)"
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    "What is `7.8` rounded to the nearest whole number?"
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    "round(7.8)"
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    "Which number is smaller: `4` or `5`?"
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    "min(4, 5)"
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       "5"
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    "min(5, 8, 10)"
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    "Which number is smaller: \n",
    "  - 80 divided by 4 \n",
    "  - 3 times 7"
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    "What's the sum of four and five (using the `sum()` function?"
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    "sum([4, 5])"
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    "What's the sum of the numbers one through five?"
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    "\n",
    "## Literal Data Syntax in Python\n",
    "\n",
    "Data in Python can take the form of many different **types**.  The most basic are:\n",
    "\n",
    "  - **int**: 3   # whole numbers\n",
    "  - **float**: 3.1  # decimal numbers\n",
    "  - **bool**: True  # the logical values, can only be True or False\n",
    "  - **str**: \"hi\"  #  text data\n",
    "  - **bytes**: b\"hi123\\x03\"  # a sequence of generic computer data\n",
    "  - **NoneType**: None  # a placeholder, usually for missing values\n",
    "  \n",
    "Data can be \"assigned\" to variables for use in other lines of code using the equals sign:\n",
    "\n",
    "```python\n",
    ">>> data = 3\n",
    ">>> data + 5\n",
    "8\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "Somtimes it's not clear what type of data a certain variable represents.   \n",
    "To find out the type of data, you can use the `type()` function:\n",
    "\n",
    "```python\n",
    ">>> type(3)\n",
    "int\n",
    "\n",
    ">>> type('hello')\n",
    "str\n",
    "\n",
    ">>> type(data)\n",
    "int\n",
    "```\n",
    "\n",
    "  "
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   "source": [
    "**Exercises**"
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       "int"
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    "type(3)"
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    "data = 3.14"
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    "data = 10"
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    "data = 10\n",
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    "data = 10."
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    "data = False"
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       "bool"
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    "data = None"
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       "NoneType"
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    "data = None\n",
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    "data = 5 > 2"
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   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "63d70694da3f467fb0a52709d287d87e",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 136.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 5,
    "execution_start": 1652166648309,
    "source_hash": "ff1b37b1",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "bool"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data = 5 > 2\n",
    "type(data)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "4479dba7be644a1db6a160a043327b11",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "What type is `data`?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data = round(3.2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "0ce138f3a7714f5da459dd983f359ae5",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 136.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 724,
    "execution_start": 1652166651505,
    "source_hash": "85ddc801",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "int"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 17,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data = round(3.2)\n",
    "type(data)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "442d70160a42428d8e8143399a8007b7",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 398,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Changing Types: Using Type Contructors to Make New Objects\n",
    "\n",
    "Just as how the function `sum()` transforms two numbers into a single number, functions can transform data found in one type into another type.  Much of the time, this function is named the same as the type, so if you know the type's name, you know how to make it!\n",
    "\n",
    "For example, make a `float` from an `int`:\n",
    "```python\n",
    ">>> x1 = 3\n",
    ">>> type(x1)\n",
    "int\n",
    ">>> x2 = float(x1)\n",
    ">>> x2\n",
    "float\n",
    "```"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "f368cacd60574f0fb15584051f87e7c5",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 54,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "##### Exercises"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "cda04b0d080a457bb9828314b1da5356",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "*Example*: Make `data2` into a `float`, from `data1`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "57e6269cd3904d5b9fd62e9aeddc6b00",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 8,
    "execution_start": 1652166671744,
    "source_hash": "3c61c72"
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(3.0, float)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 3\n",
    "data2 = float(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "2e4e4566495b482a924fbaf69eb3600b",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2`an `int`, from `data1`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "72566a4024df42eda4075fe33b06258a",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 172.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 6,
    "execution_start": 1652166677512,
    "source_hash": "e13ecbb4"
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "10000000000000"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 21,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 10_000_000_000_000.000_000"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(10000000000000, int)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 11,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 10_000_000_000_000.000_000\n",
    "data2 = int(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "70b7bfe1581c43fcadccc020e2e54f36",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2` an `int`, from `data1`.  (What's different here from the `round()` function?)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 3.99"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "df2c5238ea1545bb889b995e5165aeca",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 4,
    "execution_start": 1652166695344,
    "source_hash": "88a024ae",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(3, int)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 13,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 3.99\n",
    "data2 = int(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "54ebf21c947043929506fe67316d0689",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2` a string, from `data1`  (What's different here?)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 3.14000000"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "88ad8e11b43648f5b63bd7998cf2f2ff",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 21,
    "execution_start": 1652166710055,
    "source_hash": "21d9cd5f",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "('3.14', str)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 14,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 3.14000000\n",
    "data2 = str(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "ecbcbc0ed10f449288811be81e70502a",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2` a float, from `data1`."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = \"5.2\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "be2de81b3e4944809797380f74405c36",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 4,
    "execution_start": 1652166719291,
    "source_hash": "2a4138c5",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(5.2, float)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 16,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = \"5.2\"\n",
    "data2 = float(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "4d09e171b2bc43808d899d508bbd5f08",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2`, an int, from `data1`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = \"5\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "fd775fa5e4db494293349c342b8a4564",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 4,
    "execution_start": 1652166725972,
    "source_hash": "4e838430",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(5, int)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = \"5\"\n",
    "data2 = int(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "52a50b0073344f5b99d1a4dbdef21aa4",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Tur `data2` into an int, from `data1` (What happened?)."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 5.2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "f2f7a4580ae048c5a4af264a4976d41c",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 6,
    "execution_start": 1652166743975,
    "source_hash": "18610849",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(5, int)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 20,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 5.2\n",
    "data2 = int(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "91399f2d15664a59b05249ccd3c5beb9",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2`, a string, from `data1`.  (Don't worry if this one looks strange. What do you observe?)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = b\"testing\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "50f2c0af376141dea95a72de2bfd24e9",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 3,
    "execution_start": 1652166767927,
    "source_hash": "2f63a70e",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(\"b'testing'\", str, 'testing')"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = b\"testing\"\n",
    "data2 = str(data1)\n",
    "data2, type(data2), str(data1, 'utf8')  # 'b' and quotes were included in the string"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "3420ff2c3d6f4f88bc8583fbe0f10fd6",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Make `data2`, a `bytes`, from `data1` (What's interesting here?)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 5"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "09262dde6f0c4eab8f474b99de1fdb2f",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 154.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 577,
    "execution_start": 1652166800664,
    "source_hash": "306c3cc3",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "b'\\x00\\x00\\x00\\x00\\x00'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 27,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data1 = 5\n",
    "data2 = bytes(data1)\n",
    "data2  # made 5 empty bytes"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "1088acc4405d40c0a4757ac7c14719cc",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 405.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Method Syntax in Python: Code and Data Aren't Seperate\n",
    "\n",
    "Types in Python contain functions as well as data; when functions and data are combined, it's called an \"object\".  Everything in Python is an object, which means that all data contains some useful functions that can be used.  A function inside an object is called a **\"method\"**\n",
    "\n",
    "Methods in Python fall in two categories:\n",
    "\n",
    "  - **\"Dunder\" Methods:** These methods are named with double-underscores in the beginning and end.  They aren't meant to be used directly, but rather tell Python which method to call when an operator is used.  (For example, the `__add__` method is called when the `+` operator is in the code)\n",
    "  \n",
    "  - **Normal Methods:**  These methods are meant to be used directly, by putting a `.` after the object.  (For example, strings can count the number of times a letter appears: `'hello'.count('l')`)\n",
    "\n",
    "You can see what methods any object has by using the `dir()` function.  \n",
    "\n",
    "  - `dir()` usually produces a long list; using `print()` is a trick to make the whole list show up in the same line."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "df13c819f5514eada21d2238dd495766",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Exercises**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "f2d42bb4c13f46a3bcbd7024b4ddb324",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Print the list of methods that integers have. Do more methods start with an underscore or start with a letter?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "6cc85bd2c4e74a25ab7990f8f5f24d78",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 172.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 16,
    "execution_start": 1649927307434,
    "source_hash": "f62722ac",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "['__abs__',\n",
       " '__add__',\n",
       " '__and__',\n",
       " '__bool__',\n",
       " '__ceil__',\n",
       " '__class__',\n",
       " '__delattr__',\n",
       " '__dir__',\n",
       " '__divmod__',\n",
       " '__doc__',\n",
       " '__eq__',\n",
       " '__float__',\n",
       " '__floor__',\n",
       " '__floordiv__',\n",
       " '__format__',\n",
       " '__ge__',\n",
       " '__getattribute__',\n",
       " '__getnewargs__',\n",
       " '__gt__',\n",
       " '__hash__',\n",
       " '__index__',\n",
       " '__init__',\n",
       " '__init_subclass__',\n",
       " '__int__',\n",
       " '__invert__',\n",
       " '__le__',\n",
       " '__lshift__',\n",
       " '__lt__',\n",
       " '__mod__',\n",
       " '__mul__',\n",
       " '__ne__',\n",
       " '__neg__',\n",
       " '__new__',\n",
       " '__or__',\n",
       " '__pos__',\n",
       " '__pow__',\n",
       " '__radd__',\n",
       " '__rand__',\n",
       " '__rdivmod__',\n",
       " '__reduce__',\n",
       " '__reduce_ex__',\n",
       " '__repr__',\n",
       " '__rfloordiv__',\n",
       " '__rlshift__',\n",
       " '__rmod__',\n",
       " '__rmul__',\n",
       " '__ror__',\n",
       " '__round__',\n",
       " '__rpow__',\n",
       " '__rrshift__',\n",
       " '__rshift__',\n",
       " '__rsub__',\n",
       " '__rtruediv__',\n",
       " '__rxor__',\n",
       " '__setattr__',\n",
       " '__sizeof__',\n",
       " '__str__',\n",
       " '__sub__',\n",
       " '__subclasshook__',\n",
       " '__truediv__',\n",
       " '__trunc__',\n",
       " '__xor__',\n",
       " 'as_integer_ratio',\n",
       " 'bit_length',\n",
       " 'conjugate',\n",
       " 'denominator',\n",
       " 'from_bytes',\n",
       " 'imag',\n",
       " 'numerator',\n",
       " 'real',\n",
       " 'to_bytes']"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 28,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "dir(int)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "5fc6f6927ca94f32bf919908ff819d00",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Print the list of methods that None has.  How many don't start with an underscore?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "2c0aedd7b6434f78b88e5d11106a00fd",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 117.0625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 4,
    "execution_start": 1652166853076,
    "source_hash": "e67bf081",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['__bool__', '__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(dir(None))  # None"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "03d6b231949f4cd4a2788c87fd7e0998",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Print the list of methods that `data` has.  How many don't start with an underscore?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "123e782fc26c4474aa7791d00c5c92ee",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 135.0625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 5,
    "execution_start": 1652166861520,
    "source_hash": "74986d0f",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__getnewargs__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mod__', '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__rmod__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'capitalize', 'casefold', 'center', 'count', 'encode', 'endswith', 'expandtabs', 'find', 'format', 'format_map', 'index', 'isalnum', 'isalpha', 'isascii', 'isdecimal', 'isdigit', 'isidentifier', 'islower', 'isnumeric', 'isprintable', 'isspace', 'istitle', 'isupper', 'join', 'ljust', 'lower', 'lstrip', 'maketrans', 'partition', 'replace', 'rfind', 'rindex', 'rjust', 'rpartition', 'rsplit', 'rstrip', 'split', 'splitlines', 'startswith', 'strip', 'swapcase', 'title', 'translate', 'upper', 'zfill']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "data = 'hi'\n",
    "print(dir(data))  # lots"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "6b23a4176d1a4786ab73988e948adad8",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Looking at the list of methods in `dir(int)`, would you assume that you use the addition operator with integers?  "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "38dd3f40eeca48238881e45fe5c22ba5",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 2,
    "execution_start": 1649860992717,
    "source_hash": "84b424a0",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'__add__' in dir(int)  # yes!"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "91f1628958704826876f349c8615e376",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it (`3 + 2`)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "effa25bb73d444d1ab3d188e44541790",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 7,
    "execution_start": 1652166869407,
    "source_hash": "1a2bb36e",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 34,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "3 + 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "84d9cdeb80584c879655d9895470c102",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it using the method directly (`(3).__add__(2)`):"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "233ed4314e004378bf9e28cfd17b3573",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 136.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 5,
    "execution_start": 1652166872012,
    "source_hash": "756b7985",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "5"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 35,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a = 3\n",
    "a.__add__(2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "7ff4222fd1584f85bddc15161baef150",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Looking at the list of methods in `dir(None)`, would you assume that you use the addition operator with None?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "3da27864bd15482b86b0e7ef4df77df8",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 144.1875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 313,
    "execution_start": 1652166884850,
    "source_hash": "2556c663",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "False"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'__add__' in dir(None)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "83b373ce2deb4f189d11e59bf3af650c",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it (`None + None`)  What type of error do you get?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "a88a5e0ef859459490c101fda9ac15ee",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 144.1875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 16,
    "execution_start": 1652166895020,
    "source_hash": "b4facc8e",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'NoneType' and 'int'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-39-7cf993271d73>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;32mNone\u001b[0m \u001b[0;34m+\u001b[0m \u001b[0;36m3\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'NoneType' and 'int'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "None + 3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "0ae2c58ae7de438fae276225af9ae17d",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it using the using the method directly (`(None).__add__(None)`). what type of error do you get?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "678b230a44da4699b15b1b5c881909f9",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 144.1875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 7,
    "execution_start": 1652166901966,
    "source_hash": "2746a5a3",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "AttributeError",
     "evalue": "'NoneType' object has no attribute '__add__'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m                            Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[0;32m<ipython-input-40-def4f0f3a048>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0;31m \u001b[0;32mNone\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0m__add__\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0;36m3\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m)\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0;34m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mAttributeError\u001b[0m: 'NoneType' object has no attribute '__add__'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "None.__add__(3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "f40fb6e6b3ce4266878b26951af489fd",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Looking at the list of methods in `dir(str)`, would you assume that you use the addition operator with strings?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "3f5d592d929648dc9d6ace6e5d1e15c1",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 0,
    "execution_start": 1652166928892,
    "source_hash": "71a99c8a",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 42,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"__add__\" in dir(str)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "fed11a792cd34e88b103e2a3187f2c1c",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it: `'Hello' + 'World'`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "4262774c857741718cb608894403e971",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 2,
    "execution_start": 1652166937562,
    "source_hash": "f58d1baa",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'HelloWorld'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 43,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"Hello\" + \"World\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "98aa046c5d35438b9c83b6b071b429e7",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it using the method directly (`'Hello'.__add__('World')`):"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "cd6d768ad9784fe28e65c8a9edf26f7a",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 6,
    "execution_start": 1652166945678,
    "source_hash": "4c1a61b0",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'HelloWorld'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 44,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"Hello\".__add__(\"World\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "c389be26a7f24a6fbc3a9e49920c81cc",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Looking at the list of methods in `dir(float)`, would you assume that you use the multiplication operator with floats?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "de1a6abe25544211a766ca193f5238a8",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 10,
    "execution_start": 1652166965212,
    "source_hash": "441069fa",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 46,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"__mul__\" in dir(float)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "ae9ad5a13dc24fda9dc248260bb70d0a",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "264871bc257046b6a3a0cfdf1418d1a8",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 6,
    "execution_start": 1652166980700,
    "source_hash": "82647b7c",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "6.4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 48,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "3.2 * 2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "ea991457a99941868d0c9cdc5f3dcc2b",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it using the method directly:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "ab9ac91e73b84bd1b4445c795352621c",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 10,
    "execution_start": 1652166992567,
    "source_hash": "4567fa87",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "6.4"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 49,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(3.2).__mul__(2)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "ec1e67ed40044272b1a52e1c07f9c5d6",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Looking at the list of methods in `dir(str)`, would you assume that you use the multiplication operator with strings?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "270c1ca3b2334bb4a69ea8db6d4b0c79",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 2,
    "execution_start": 1652167005722,
    "source_hash": "9a007c4b",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "True"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 50,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"__mul__\" in dir(str)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "2014aa09bdf141f29a10e808a4f7ddb3",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it: `'GTC' * 10`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "4aa48bdb24b4454f83e3015bebfe0713",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 7,
    "execution_start": 1652167010965,
    "source_hash": "9a5f820c",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'HiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHi'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 51,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"Hi\" * 10"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "a65ee0a4f57f4f9cb6764212a32b6d3b",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown"
   },
   "source": [
    "Try it using the method directly:"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "5177eebb38e34a018bfeb957f2cd038b",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 118.171875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 17,
    "execution_start": 1652167021879,
    "source_hash": "5a7ac96f",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'HiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHiHi'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 52,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "\"Hi\".__mul__(10)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Try multiplying two strings together. (e.g. `'Hello' * 'World'`  What do you observe? "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'str'",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[0;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "Cell \u001b[0;32mIn [30], line 1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m----> 1\u001b[0m \u001b[38;5;124m'\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124mHello\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m'\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;241m*\u001b[39m \u001b[38;5;124m'\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124mWorld\u001b[39m\u001b[38;5;124m'\u001b[39m\n",
      "\u001b[0;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'str'"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "'Hello' * 'World'"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "19edada4adcb442ca2ade0350e6b06c2",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 144.796875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "## Reviewing Terminology\n",
    "\n",
    "**Exercises**\n",
    "\n",
    "Is the following code an example of a used **function**, **method**, or **operator**?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "a983ed96cf934267a69160c563cd3848",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "`sum([1, 2, 3])`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "02dd5e9776f44fdabe95c64e282f023a",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 81,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 14,
    "execution_start": 1649921270062,
    "source_hash": "c500b8f9",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# function"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "b0903bf4baed42b491a8336182bd3fc6",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "`\n",
    "\"Hello\".count('l')`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "eacb3564a36c4fd3945a6c65afa1e2c9",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 81,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 8,
    "execution_start": 1649921277659,
    "source_hash": "c500b8f9",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# method"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "7cd599f243ba4923a68d473bd8809740",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "`3 + 5`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "d8744b8a5b264e018ad2e9a0de909818",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 81,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 0,
    "execution_start": 1649921295966,
    "source_hash": "c500b8f9",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# operator"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "1293df7cdda64ef8884f51d5ea5db3d8",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 94.796875,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 12,
    "execution_start": 1649921314666,
    "source_hash": "aef9cab",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "```python\n",
    "import math\n",
    "math.sqrt(72)\n",
    "```"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "74d130e7c6b04bc083de48455e40fd2c",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 81,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 2,
    "execution_start": 1652167033995,
    "source_hash": "2942f67c",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# function"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "93cf25d593394f5eb886cc66386f3e0b",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 12,
    "execution_start": 1649921368499,
    "source_hash": "a522061c",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "`(72).__mul__(3)`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": null,
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "74a3639f1fd54f7aa80cc6bbd4aeb000",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 81,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "code",
    "deepnote_to_be_reexecuted": false,
    "execution_millis": 3,
    "execution_start": 1652167037500,
    "source_hash": "bca66414",
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# method"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "cell_id": "65b0026e954f45a19c1bd3df6afa004e",
    "deepnote_cell_height": 52.390625,
    "deepnote_cell_type": "markdown",
    "tags": []
   },
   "source": [
    "`mul(72, 3)`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {
    "tags": [
     "exercise"
    ]
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "# function"
   ]
  }
 ],
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